Projects

CWCT has undertaken the following research projects:

Guidance on built-up walls: Completed 2017

Details
 

Researcher: David Metcalfe
 
Funded: CWCT with the support of the partners below
 
Total value:
 
Partners:
  • Cladtech
  • Ffacesolutions
  • Kingspan Limited
  • Laing O'Rourke
  • Mark Heywood Associates
  • Marley Eternit Limited
  • MCRMA
  • Multiplex Construction Europe
  • National House-Building Council
  • Rockwool Rockpanel
  • Sandberg
  • SIPCO
  • Society of Façade Engineering
  • STO Limited
  • Tremco ilbruck
  • Independent Building Technology Ltd
 
Status: Completed 2017

Introduction:

This project reviewed current standards and practice for the design, manufacture and assembly of built-up walls. The aim of the project was to produce a best practice guide for industry.

Built-up (layered) walls have been used successfully for centuries but recent advances in materials and the scale of these constructions has thrown up many technical questions and a number of walls have failed to deliver the intended performance.

The study considered the many forms of built-up wall construction and all aspects of performance including:

  • Watertightness
  • Air permeability
  • Structural performance
  • Movement
  • Robustness
  • Fire
  • Thermal performance
  • Condensation
  • Acoustics
  • Durability
  • The study also considered the design and construction process including roles and responsibilities.

    Outputs:

    Design and construction guide – Guidance on built-up walls

    Service life prediction of aluminium construction products: Completed 2015

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
     
    Funded: European Aluminium Association
     
    Total value: £10,000
     
    Partners: Centre for Window and Cladding Technology
    Politechnico di Milano
     
    Status: Completed 2015

    Introduction:

    This project studied the service life of aluminium products used in the building envelope including:

  • Windows and doors
  • Curtain walling
  • Rainscreen panels
  • Roofing
  • The aim was to produce a state of the art report on service life prediction regarding research, standards and best practice.

    The Centre for Window and Cladding Technology focussed on curtain wall and rainscreen performance while the Politechnico di Milano studied the performance of windows and doors.

    Strategies for predicting maintenance cycles and service life were developed including design to optimise the repair and maintenance programme.

    Outputs:

    EAA report - Service life prediction of aluminium construction products

    Design for movement in buildings: Completed 2014

    Details
     

    Researcher: Alan Keiller
     
    Funded: Ciria core members
    ICE R & D Enabling fund
    LUL
     
    Total value:
     
     
    Status: Completed 2014

    Introduction:

    This project drew together best practice on design of buildings to accommodate or resist movement. It considered all sources of building movement and the movement of building elements.

    Provision for movement in design is described along with the design of joints to accommodate movement.

    CWCT contributed the section on cladding-structure interaction.

    Outputs:

    CIRIA report C734 - Design for movement in buildings - ISBN978-0-86017-738-8

    The case for centres of excellence in sustainable building design: Completed 2012

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
     
    Funded: The project was funded by the partners below.
     
    Total value:
     
    Lead partner: Royal Academy of Engineering
     
    Partners: Centre for Window & Cladding Technology
    The Chartered Institute of Building Service Engineers
    The Happold Trust
    King Shaw Associates Limited
    The Ove Arup Foundation
    The Royal Academy of Engineering
    The University of Bath Knowledge Transfer Partnership
     
    Status: Completed 2012

    Introduction:

    This was an exercise to establish the costs and benefits for the UK economy of creating a network of centres of excellence in integrated, sustainable design for construction. These centres will promote knowledge, teaching and research in sustainable and low carbon design techniques and the application of technologies for the benefit of the UK low carbon construction industry.

    Outputs:

    The case for Centres of Excellence in sustainable building design, Royal Academy of Engineering.

    Ecolabel and GPP criteria for windows and doors: Completed 2012

    Details
     

    Researcher: David Metcalfe
     
    Funded: Joint Research Centre, European Commission
     
    Total value: £10,000
     
    Lead partner: AEA
     
     
    Status: Completed 2012

    Introduction:

    Energy consumption in buildings accounts for around 40% of the total primary energy consumption in the EU 27 and it is considered that heat losses throughout windows and doors can be responsible for up to 25% of this consumption.

    The environmental impact of the windows and doors is assessed by a life cycle analysis (LCA) that covers all the phases of the product - extraction and production of raw materials, assembly and transportation, use of the window/door, maintenance and end-of-life.

    Green public procurement (GPP) is a process whereby public authorities seek to procure goods, services and works with a reduced environmental impact throughout their life cycle when compared to goods, services and works with the same primary function that would otherwise be procured. The EU Ecolabel is seen as one way in which GPP criteria can be met.

    This is a scoping study to investigate exactly what an EU Ecolabel for windows and doors would comprise and how it would be assessed. The role of CWCT is to assist AEA in developing these criteria, as well as providing a commentary on potential future developments within the window industry that may reduce their in-use energy.

    Outputs:

    Report to the JRC setting out the argument for EU co-labelling of windows and doors.

    The use of double facades to facilitate demand controlled ventilation: Completed 2009

    Details
     

    Researcher: Zhihong Liao
     
    Funded: DTI Technology programme/industry 
     
    Value: £68,300
     
    Lead partner: CWCT 
     
    Partners: Allies and Morrison 
    Bennetts Associates 
    Carillion plc 
    Council for Aluminium in Building 
    Faber Maunsell Ltd 
    Hoare Lea 
    Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd 
     
    Status: Begins January 2007

    Introduction:

    The objective of this work is to establish virtual precedents for the use of double facades that provide a pressure-moderated plenum from which air can be drawn for demand controlled ventilation. The performance of such a facade requires knowledge of how to determine the best geometry, how to position and size the vents in the outer and innter skins, and how to determine how effectively it may be used.

    This project will:

    • Undertake a desk study of the wind events in the UK, particularly the periods of low or no wind. This will comprise statistics showing the performance required of the facade if it is to be effecitve for a given percentage of the time.
    • Facade geometries will be postulated for a number of building layouts to optimise the use of theremal stack effect and also the transfer of air from one to another.
    • The performance of the double facade as a pressure-moderated plenum will be modelled using CFD software to show how large facades may be before pressure variations in the plenum interfere with ventilation patterns and the extent to which gusts can be moderated on the windiest days.
    • Existing building projects will be studied to determine typical demands for ventilation and other factors controlled by the building envelope including daylight, solar gain and heat transfer by convection and conduction.
    • The 'art of the possible', determined by the CFD modelling, will be reconciled with typical building requirements and the realistic geometries, vent strategies and control strategies will be reviewed to determine rules for use at the outline design stage.

    Outputs:
      Two reports will be written:

  • One for clients and architects presenting the information required to allow the inclusion of an effective double facade at the design stage.
  • The second for cladding and building services engineers presenting an engineering methodology, along with relevant data gathered as part of the project.
  • The use of BMS to control facades: Completed 2008

    Details
     

    Researcher: David Metcalfe
     
    Funded: DTI Technology programme/industry 
     
    Value: £62,710
     
    Lead partner: CWCT 
     
    Partners: Carillion plc 
    Council for Aluminium in Building 
    FaberMaunsell Ltd 
    Max Fordham LLP 
    SE Controls 
    Velfac Ltd 
     
    Status: Completed 2008

    Introduction:

    There are two objects of this research. One is to identify the barriers to the use of BMS controlled automated facades and to report on ways that these may be broken down. The other is to look at additional functionality that will tip the balance in favour of using BMS controlled facades.

    This project will:

    • Review the operable components of facades that are currently available and the range of operating characteristics. This review of 'the art of the possible' will include functions associated with shading, ventilation, security and fire.
    • Review the limitations of current control strategies for facades, particularly the control of glare.
    • Review the current actuator technology including its interfacing with BMS and its reliability.
    • Review on the porcess of designing building with BMS controlled automated facades including the earliest design stages and the eventual detailing of facade systems to incorporate actuators and wiring looms.
    • Report on the construction of buildings that incorporate BMS controlled facades.
    • Investigate the additional functionality that can be achieved bu using sensors in different combinations includeing the difference between internal and external conditions rather than just the internal environment.

    Outputs:
      The report is published as 'Automated facade control'

    New facade techniques - removing cold bridges: Completed 2006

    Details
     

    Researcher: Zhihong Liao
    David Metcalfe
     
    Funded: DTI PII programme/industry
     
    Total value: £99,550
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Partners: Sandberg
    Permasteelisa
     
    Status: Current

    Introduction:

    Cladding design is changing rapidly in response to ever tightening thermal requirements imposed in Part L of the Building Regulations. There is a high risk that solutions will be developed that address thermal insulation to the detriment of other aspects of performance such as condensation formation and overall integrity.

    Innovative approaches to cladding are needed while underpinning sound design. The project will consider trends in cladding design and analyse possible solutions for both thermal performance and robustness.
     

    Objectives:

    The objective of this work is to provide guidance on solutions, analytical techniques and other methods of evaluation that will promote improved walls whilst guarding against false solutions. The principal output from the project will be a hard copy publication and CD available to the public – a guide to improving façade design and particularly façade components. This will concentrate on weaknesses of current designs, options for improvements and potential pitfalls.

    The construction types to be considered will include:

    • Curtain walling
    • Rainscreen
    • Punched windows
    • Insulated panels

    The solutions to be considered will include:

    • Thicker insulation materials
    • Alternative materials
    • Removal/reduction of metal components
    • Cladding and thermal shielding of components

    Issues to be studied will include:

    • Structural integrity
    • Thermal and acoustic performance
    • Durability
    • Buildability
    Cladding training on-line: Completed 2006

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
     
    Funded: DTI PII programme/industry
     
    Total value: £144,600
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Partners: Kawneer UK Ltd
    Parry Bowen Ltd
    Senior Aluminium plc
    Technal Ltd
    Comar
    Deceuninck Ltd
    Metal Technology Ltd
    Sapa Building Systems Ltd
    Wintech Ltd
     
    Status: Current

    Introduction:

    This project will create an online learning portal containing training material and assessment procedures for those involved in the detail design of glazing systems from windows to curtain walls and roofs It will also form a broader framework in which existing and new technicians can train.
     

    Objectives:

    The overall objective of this proposal is to provide high quality, structured on-line learning for technicians within and around the cladding and fenestration industry, with the specific aims of promoting best practice, improving overall quality, reducing costs and wastage through errors and promoting safe working practices.

    There are some 500 companies who take responsibility for the detail design of glazing systems and many independent design offices servicing them. In addition many architectural technicians need a knowledge of glazing systems. The aim is to make training readily available to these many small companies who are widely distributed. There are few clusters of companies able to approach local colleges together but where these exist colleges may wish to integrate the on-line learning with locally available training programmes.

    Outputs:

    Best practice guide to the safe erection of facades: Completed 2006

    Details
     

    Researcher: Alan Keiller
     
    Funded: DTI PII programme/industry
     
    Total value: £80,000
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Partners: Taylor Woodrow
    Dane Architectural
    Hamilton Associates
    LMC
    Sir Robert McAlpine
    Mowlem
    SLW
    Whitby Bird
     
    Status: Current

    Introduction:

    Façade erection is potentially hazardous as it involves working at height with the consequent risk of falls. There is also a hazard to others working on the site from falling materials and equipment. During erection façade components may be temporarily supported on the face of the building and vulnerable to wind and accidental loads. They may also be subject to critical load cases not considered in the design of the completed cladding.
     

    Objectives:

    The objective of this proposal is to provide guidance on the safe erection of facades. The proposed guide will be primarily aimed at specialist subcontractors who are responsible for the detailed design, but more particularly, the erection of facades. It will also be directed at main contractors who are responsible for the overall safety on site and the co-ordination of the activities of different sub contractors. The introduction to the guide will describe the issues involved and strategies that may be adopted. As well as forming an introduction to the overall guide this section will also be available separately and will be of value to designers.

    Details
     

    Researcher: Alan Keiller
     
    Funded: DTI PII programme/industry
     
    Total value: £80,000
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Partners: Taylor Woodrow
    Dane Architectural
    Hamilton Associates
    LMC
    Sir Robert McAlpine
    Mowlem
    SLW
    Whitby Bird
     
    Status: Current

    Introduction:

    Façade erection is potentially hazardous as it involves working at height with the consequent risk of falls. There is also a hazard to others working on the site from falling materials and equipment. During erection façade components may be temporarily supported on the face of the building and vulnerable to wind and accidental loads. They may also be subject to critical load cases not considered in the design of the completed cladding.
     

    Objectives:

    The objective of this proposal is to provide guidance on the safe erection of facades. The proposed guide will be primarily aimed at specialist subcontractors who are responsible for the detailed design, but more particularly, the erection of facades. It will also be directed at main contractors who are responsible for the overall safety on site and the co-ordination of the activities of different sub contractors. The introduction to the guide will describe the issues involved and strategies that may be adopted. As well as forming an introduction to the overall guide this section will also be available separately and will be of value to designers.

    Outputs:

    The use of glass in the building envelope: Current

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
    Alan Keiller
     
    Funded: CWCT membership
     
    Total value: £30,000
     
    Status: Current

    Introduction:

    Glass is increasingly being used in modern architecture to form part of the envelope or outer skin of buildings.  It also faces increasing demands often through legislation for improved building performance.  This has led to the glazing industry developing a wider range of more sophisticated products.  Information on these glazed products is not comprehensive and is not readily available in a single source.  As a result, the choices facing those involved in building envelope design can be large and decisions may be made without the necessary information, which may subsequently lead to problems with the building or disputes with the client.

    Objectives:

    This book will therefore provide a comprehensive guide to the performance and use of glass in building envelopes in order to increase understanding and facilitate easier glass selection, installation and maintenance.  Additional benefits will be improved building performance and client satisfaction.  The book should therefore be of benefit to anyone involved in the design, construction and use of glazed buildings, whether they be architects, contractors, designers, structural engineers, specifiers, consultants and clients, as well as people interested in learning more about glass, such as students.

    Outputs:

    Glazing at height - guidance for designers and clients: Completed 2004

    Details
     

    Researcher: Alan Keiller
    Andrew Walker
     
    Funded: ODPM/BAA/BCSC/LUL/RSSB, through contract administered by CIRIA
     
    Value to CWCT: £45,000
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Partner: Independent Building Technology
     
    Status: Completed 2005

    Introduction:

    Large areas of glazing at height are increasingly a feature of modern architecture and, as the demands on building performance become more onerous, those on glazing have also increased. Whilst the glazing industry has responded with more sophisticated products, those involved in glass design and procurement face an array of glass configurations to choose from and various dilemmas in the final selection.

    As a result, it is hardly surprising that there have been a number of high profile projects where there have been allegations or disputes regarding the glazing installations. Fortunately the cases have not resulted in major injuries but they highlight the potential for concerns about safety, adverse publicity, disruption if extensive remedial works are required, and expense. It is therefore important on each project for glass configurations to be selected carefully with all parties properly informed of the associated performance characteristics before the glass configurations are finalised.

    Existing buildings and structures, especially those that are listed, present additional challenges. Refurbishment must often take place whilst retaining use of the building, including the glazed areas, and access for large numbers of people. Planning and heritage authorities may require listed buildings to retain their external and internal appearance, presenting challenges in using modern glazing techniques and materials, and fulfilling standards. Maintenance or replacement of such glazing presents further safety issues.

    Objectives:

    The project will produce guides for designers and clients. It will examine current guidance and risk assessment methods and gather experience and knowledge on current practice from practitioners and experts. Where possible failures, accidents and “near-misses” will be examined to obtain an understanding of the underlying cause. The potential effect of issues such as nickel sulphide inclusions, thermal stress, quality of installation, impact and wind or storm damage will be considered and guidance given. Information to guide designers and clients will be assembled and a risk assessment methodology developed to assist decision-making.

    Outputs:

    CIRIA workshop - Glazing at height, London, December 2003

    Design for safe access: Completed 2004

    Details
     

    Researcher: Alan Keiller
    Stephen Ledbetter
     
    Funded: DTI PII programme/industry
     
    Total value: £99,400
    Lead partner: CWCT
    Partners: Taylor Woodrow
     
    Status: Completed 2004

    Introduction:

    Working at height is a major cause of accidents in construction.  The construction repair, maintenance and deconstruction of facades invariably require operatives to spend some time working at height.

    Construction safety can be increased both by reducing the time a person is exposed to falls through having to work at height and by making working at height safer.  The aim of this project is to bring awareness of façade access and construction methods into the early stages of building design.

    Objectives:

    This project will result in a guide to good practice for building professionals that will enable them to procure and design buildings with facades that are safer to construct, operate, maintain, repair and deconstruct.  In particular to advise on the design of facades that entail working at height.  The guide to good practice will show alternative design solutions, including the different forms of pre-assembled construction, and describe legal requirements such that the early design of the building will facilitate compliance with the CDM regulations.

    Outputs:

    CWCT one-day seminar, The design of facades for safe access, maintenance and repair, London, December 2003

    Detailing modern non-domestic building envelopes to comply with the new Approved Document part L of the Building Regulations: Completed 2004

    Details
     

    Researcher: Zhihong Liao
    David Metcalfe
     
    Funded: DTI PII programme/industry
     
    Total value: £119,500
    Lead partner: CWCT
    Partners: Sandberg
    Permasteelisa
     
    Status: Completed 2004

    Introduction:

    The assessment of thermal performance of cladding systems frequently causes problems due to poor understanding of the heat flow paths, which occur at cold bridges. These problems are likely to be increased by the implementation of the new Part L of the Building Regulations as the increased insulation required will increase the significance of cold bridges.

    Cold bridges are principally a problem because they decrease the temperature of the internal wall surface and give rise to a greater risk of condensation formation.

    Objectives:

    This project will develop and publish advice on detailing non-domestic building envelopes to comply with the new Approved Document Part L of the Building Regulations. This will amount to a ‘robust detailing’ guide that could in future be annexed to Part L. The guidance will cover appropriate calculation methods for assessing the overall energy loss and condensation risk of different modern cladding systems and give best practice advice to avoid cold bridging.

    The details to be considered will include:

    • Cladding framing members
    • Cladding penetrations for structure or services
    • Interfaces between different cladding types
    • Incorporation of windows in to cladding frames and panels
    Outputs:
    Communicating down the cladding supply chain: Completed 2004

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
    Alan Keiller
     
    Funded: DTI PII programme/industry 
     
    Value to CWCT: £120,000
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Partners: Taylor Woodrow 
    Building Performance Group 
    Buro Four
     
    Status: Completed 2004

    Introduction:

    This project is jointly funded by the DTI Partner in Innovation programme and industry.  It is a study of the supply chain for cladding involving all parties from client through to component/material manufacturer.
     

    Objectives:

    To determine best practice in the flow of information down the supply chain.  To develop a software package to aid this communication.
     

    Outputs:

    Ledbetter, S. (2003)
    Communicating down the cladding supply chain,
    Facade design and procurement, pp 161-166, Bath, April 2003. ISBN 1 874003 15 7

    To improve site practices for collection and clean separation of composite flat glass materials in the construction and demolition industry

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
     
    Funded: WRAP
     
    Value to CWCT: £20,000
     
    Lead partner: Steel Construction Institute
     
    Partners: Centre for Window and Cladding Technology
     
    Status: Completed 2004

    Introduction:

    This project is to:

    • Establish/classify tonnages/types of glass composites historically and currently used in UK construction, in existing buildings and in future potential usage.
    • Establish the types and locations of building and types/tonnages of structural/supporting frame material used in the above, and how these factors influence the type/fitting of glass used and its recyclability.
    • Assess current recycling rates and predict future recycling rates, and the factors controlling these rates.  Will include hands-on quantitative assessment of selected current contract sites to visit and monitor for glass mass balances and waste materials arising, extrapolated forward on a national basis.
    • Identify the technical (and related financial) barriers faced by construction clients, specifiers, manufacturers, fabricators, and refurbishers/demolishers in using more recycled products and achieving greater separation/recycling rates.

    Objectives:

    To encourage and facilitate a significant increase in the recycling rates of architectural (flat) glass, especially where composited with steel, aluminium and other materials in frames and other components.

    To create improved site practices for collection and clean separation of composite materials, which will also require investment in new plant, and a change in attitude in the industry encouraged by development of a valuable market for the recyclates.

    To develop techniques which do not significantly impact on the cost/duration of a Construction/Demolition contract, have clear cost-benefits, and provide recyclates with high value and demand.

    To encourage greater levels of recycled higher-grade architectural glass feedstock into the C & D infrastructure, for more direct recycling as valuable flat glass products.

    Outputs:

    Report to SCI, Review of glass types used in architectural glazing
    Report to SCI , Review of framing systems and materials

    Warm-edge glazing: Completed 2003

    Details
     

    Researcher: Zhihong Liao
     
    Funded: DTI PII programme/industry 
     
    Value to CWCT: £120,000
     
    Lead partner: Glass and Glazing Federation 
     
    Partners: National Physical Laboratory 
    Azon 
    Bostik Findley 
    British Wood Federation 
    British Plastics Federation Windows Group 
    Chemetall 
    Council for Aluminium in Building 
    Glass and ‘Warm Edge’ product suppliers 
    Interpane 
    Pilkington  
    Steel Window Association 
    Tremco
     
    Status: Completed 2004

    Introduction:

    The overall objective is to make building more energy efficient, by improving the performance of windows for new construction and refurbishment. This will reduce the demand of energy production and reduce pollution by greenhouse gases. The proposed revisions of the Energy Efficiency provision of Building Regulations now focus upon overall window energy loss, rather on a combination of centre of glass and frame loss. The proposed overall U-value levels are significantly more demanding, presenting a challenge to better thermal performance of windows.

    Better thermal performance of windows can be achieved by better employing recent developments in glass and glazing technologies, including Low E coating, inert gas filling, and warm edge glazing. The simulations carried by CWCT will demonstrate the comparative performance of emerging technology with established methods of manufacture and glazing. 

    Objectives:
    This project will establish an authoritative database of information for comparing current technology on the thermal performance of windows. It maybe used for guidance by legislators, specifiers, builders, and window manufacturers. The database may also be used for the assessment of evolving technology for windows and glazing. The information will also be dovetailed into other DETR activities, including the introduction of European Standards, the review of Building Regulation and Eurocodes, together with the development of ‘robust Standards’ to support the requirements

    Outputs: Report to GGF

    CIMCLAD: Completed 2002

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
    Alan Keiller
     
    Funded: DETR/EPSRC Link programme/industry 
     
    Value to CWCT:
     
    Lead partner: Leeds University
     
    Status: Completed 2004

    Introduction:

    CIMclad is a collaborative LINK project involving Loughborough University, Leeds University and ten industrial collaborators.  The aim is to explore the potential for using emerging IT tools and modelling paradigms to increase the standardisation of procedures and the efficiency of business processes within the building cladding sector.  The initial two-year research programme is specifically focused on Rainscreen cladding.  In the longer term, CIMclad is intended to lead to the computer-integrated design and manufacture of cladding systems.
     

    Objectives:

    CIMCLAD will investigate the feasibility of improving the efficiency and competitiveness of the cladding sector through the development of a standardisation framework for computer-integrated design and manufacture of cladding systems. The design, manufacture and installation of ‘layered cladding walls’ (rainscreen cladding) will form the main focus of the work.
     

    Outputs:

    FACETS - Fenestration And Cladding Engineering Technology Scheme: Completed 2001

    Details
     
    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
     
    Funded: DTI
    Total value: £247,000
     
    Partners: BWF
    Leeds Metropolitan University
    City University
    CWCT 
     
    Status: Completed
    Introduction
    The FACETS project will make technology and information more accessible in the window and cladding and construction industries. Run by the Centre for Window and Cladding Technology (CWCT) and funded from the DTI Technical Focus Programme it is intended to transfer technology into SMEs (companies employing less than 100 people). Valued at £247,500 the project is 50% funded from industry.
     
    The Need
    The cladding and window industry spans the construction and manufacturing sectors and includes both those who design and manufacture components and assemblies and also those who design and construct buildings. The industry is characterised by a large number of SMEs (Architects, consultants and specialist sub-contractors) and no large companies able to lead the sector. A recent Products and Services Review for the DTI showed the need for networking, for technology transfer and access to information so that the SMEs in this sector can compete against international competition.
     
    The Solution
    The development of an on-line cladding forum using web technology is ideally suited to networking these SMEs and providing access to the technology and information that they require. Much technology and information has been developed over the last 8 years by the CWCT, funded jointly by industry and the DETR. The FACETS project will give SMEs access to this and other information and also the under pinning knowledge needed in some of the smaller SMEs if they are to access the technology.  The FACETS CD-ROM can be pre-viewed on the publications pages.
    In addition The Cladding Forum to be developed as part of this project will enable SMEs to access a technical enquiry desk at CWCT and provide a gateway to other sources of information available globally on the internet.
     
    The Project
    CWCT will produce technology transfer packages. These will contain technical information and be made available electronically either on CD or on-line as part of a subscription website.
    The twelve technology transfer packages planned are:
    • Glass and glazing
    • Advanced glazings and photovoltaics
    • Sealing of building envelopes
    • Rainscreen cladding
    • Finishes and durability
    • Life cycle costing
    • Structural performance
    • Tolerances, accuracy, jointing and surveying
    • Structural glass and structural sealant glazing
    • Supply chain analysis, QA and FMEA
    • Thermal insulation and energy efficiency
    • Acoustics, ventilation, building comfort and adaptive facades

    CWCT has 190 member companies who support its development and research work. The Centre has technical and training groups drawn from industry to oversee the technical excellence and appropriateness of the Centre's work. These industry groups will oversee:

    • the format of FACETS
    • the content of the technology transfer packages
    • the promotion of FACETS with SMEs

    Benefits
    The key benefit is to provide UK SMEs in this industry sector with access to the latest technology and best practice so that they can match their international competitors.
    The UK cladding and window industry is worth in excess of £3 billion and comprises many hundreds of small SMEs. This project will network 200 SMEs by the year 2000 and it is estimated some 500 SMEs will eventually have access to The Cladding Forum.
     
    Dissemination
    This activity is implicit within the FACETS programme. SMEs will be made aware of the FACETS project through CWCT's existing contacts within the industry, workshops with SMEs, press activity and the CWCT's existing website.
    Guide to installation of curtain walling: Completed 2001

    Details
     

    Researcher: Robert Lilly 
     
    Funded: DETR 50%, industry 50%
     
    Total value: £27,667
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed


     

    Background/Justification

    Curtain walling failure resulting from poor installation has been one of the major causes of building failure over recent years. Training has been reduced across the whole spectrum of construction skills in the UK. At the same time the technology of curtain walling has changed so that many installers are not conversant with the current construction techniques and materials.

    Similarly supervisory staff, architects, main contractors and structural engineers, are unfamiliar with these changes. There is a clear need for guidance on curtain walling to be available to everybody at site level.
     

    Objectives

    Based on the CWCT courses for installers and site supervisors, the CWCT will produce a guide to the installation of curtain walling. This will cover: sealants, glazing techniques, setting out, support brackets, storage, protection, cleaning and handover.

    This guide is not intended as a substitute for in-depth information provided in the Standard & Guide to Good Practice for Curtain Walling and elsewhere; rather it is to be directed at site usage and the training of installers and supervisory staff.
     

    Outputs:

    Teaching overheads for the training of installers. These comprise a common set of overheads for use by all system companies training installers.

    The CWCT INSTALLATION HANDBOOK

    CLADD:iss: Completed 2000

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
     
    Funded: DETR/EPSRC Link programme/industry 
     
    Value to CWCT:
     
    Lead partner: Loughborough University
     
    Status: Completed 2002

    Background and justification:

    Many problems of cladding are associated with the interfaces between different cladding systems or components.  Also between the cladding and other elements of the building.
     

    Objectives:

    To produce a methodology for the engineering design of cladding interfaces.

    To provide the necessary information for the proper design of cladding interfaces.
     

    Outputs:

    CLADD:iss interactive CD with details of components, interfaces, standards for cladding.

    British Fenestration Rating Council: Completed 2000

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
     
    Funded: DETR PIT programme/industry 
    Total value: £162,000
     
    Value to CWCT: £13,000
     
    Partners: BWF
    Leeds Metropolitan University
    City University
    CWCT 
     
    Status: Completed

    Background and justification:

    Awareness of the potential energy saving benefits of windows is growing in the UK but is not as advanced as in other countries such as the USA, Canada and Australia.  Despite the introduction of European standrads (CEN) for thermal calculation methods there is still a proliferation of calculation methods in the UK and no single way to compare fenestration products.
     

    Objectives:

    To establish an energy rating scheme for domestic windows(and doors) for the UK market.
     
    Activities:

    • Compare available software and determine the most suitable basis for comparison in the UK market
    • Establish a framework for operating the BFRC
    • Develop a business plan for the BFRC and promote its activities


    Outputs:

    'BFRC Operation and quality control - a proposal for formal structures and certification'
    Internal project report

    The BFRC runs a website at: http://www.bfrc.org

    Buildability assessment method for cladding: Completed 2000

    Details
     

    Researcher: Jeremy Layzell
    Alan Keiller
    Stephen Ledbetter 
     
    Funded: Funded: DETR 50%, industry 50%
     
    Total value: £300,000
     
    Value to CWCT: £60,000
     
    Lead partner: Taylor Woodrow
      
    Partners: BRE
    Building Envelopes Ltd 
     
    Status: Completed

    Justification:

    Lack of understanding of, and hence allowance for, construction tolerances is a major source of conflict on site which increases construction costs and can lead to building failures and bad buildings if corrective measures to allow fit are ill-conceived. There is also a lack of up-to-date information about the accuracy characteristic of typical construction processes, making planning and designing for buildability more difficult.
     

    Objectives:

    This project aims to address the problems that occur with the fitting of window/cladding systems to the building frame as a result of the level of accuracy with which structures are built and the tolerances specified. Existing and up-to-date survey data from case study building projects will be used to develop a buildability assessment method to assist all parties in the design, specification and erection of building and cladding systems in overcoming the problems that occur with lack of fit.

    Different types of cladding are more, or less, tolerant of inaccuracies in the building frame. Equally, cladding designs of complex geometry are more difficult to set-out on site and construct. The project will study and quantify these and other factors that affect the ease of construction of cladding.
     

    Outputs:

    Structural frame and cladding buildability assessment method, Jeremy Layzell, Research Focus No. 33, May 1998.

    Buildability interactive CD with details of tolerances, interfaces, good practice.

    Glass adhesive building structures: Completed 2000

    Details
     

    Researcher: Andrew Pye 
     
    Funded: University of Bath 
     
    Total value: £23,000 
     
    Partners: 3M
    Pilkington 
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    New adhesives and adhesive are able to sustain high stresses when bonded to glass. This offers the potential to build glass-adhesive-glass composite elements that behave as true structural composites.
    This project includes analytical and testing work and aims to demonstrate that greater than 80 percent composite action can be achieved.
     

    Outputs:

    Pye, A.& Ledbetter, S.R. (1998)
    "The selection of an adhesive for the construction of a glass- adhesive T-beam",
    International Journal of adhesives and Adhesion, Vol 18/3, pp. 159-165,  Elsevier.

    Pye, A. & Ledbetter, S.R.(1997)
    "The Engineering of composite glass beams",
    ICBEST '97, pp 85-90, Bath, April 1997

    Pye, A.(1998)
    "The structural performance of glass adhesive T- beams",
    PhD thesis, University of Bath, December 1998

    Pye, A. and Ledbetter, S. (1999)
    "Realising composite glass-adhesive beams in practice"
    Glass in buildings, pp185-190, Bath, March 1999

    The development of a window with automatic shading and ventilation: Completed 2000

    Details
     

    Researcher: Dr Richard Harris
    Mark Skelly  
     
    Funded: DETR 50%, industry 50% 
     
    Total value: £133,500  
     
    Partners: Somfi
    Taylor Woodrow
     
    Status: Completed

    Background/Justification

    Integrated Building Control (IBC) is based on a system of implanting chips in individual sensors (temperature, smoke, light and so on) and actuators (for example door closers, window openers, sprinkler systems) and using various means (mains cables, infra-red links, dedicated wires, radio etc.) to communicate with a central computer system, programmed to operate all of the devices according to some master control scheme. The interaction between sensors and actuators is defined by the computer, not by the connections between components, and so control strategies can be rapidly adapted to suit the changing needs of the occupants.
     

    Objectives

    This project aims to use an IBC test facility at Taywood Engineering Limited to develop a window with automatic vents and shading. A key part of the project will be to identify self-adaptive control strategies which can be applied to the window, in order to moderate the environment within a room, but allowing for the needs of an occupant. By developing an adaptive control strategy it is expected that the window can be de-sensitised to the effects of different hardware, and yet still adapt to the needs of the particular room and its occupant.
     

    Outputs:

    'IBC automated window project' on CD-ROM, CWCT members may use the report free on line by visiting the cladding forum and using utilities.

    Skelly, M. (2000)
    The individual and the intelligent facade,
    Building Research & Information, 28(1), pp. 67-69, ISSN 0961-3218

    Skelly, M. J. and Wilkinson, M. A. (1999)
    'Blinded by the Light',
    CIBSE Journal, December 1999, pp30-34

    Skelly, M. J. and Wilkinson, M. A. (1999)
    'The Integration of Occupant Control within an Automated Blind Control Strategy and the Application of Learning Systems',
    CIBSE National Conference, 3-5 October 1999, pp327-337.

    Control strategies for automated windows: Completed 2000

    Details
     

    Researcher: Mark Skelly
    Martin Wilkinson 
     
    Funded: University of Bath 
     
    Total value: £20,000 
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    To investigate the performance of an automatic window fitted with both controlled vents and blinds.
    This project aims to establish rules for integrating windows with controlable ventilation and shading into a BEMS system.

    Outputs:

    Skelly, M. (2000)
    The individual and the intelligent facade,

    Building Research & Information, 28(1), pp. 67-69, ISSN 0961-3218
    Skelly, M. J. and Wilkinson, M. A. (1999)

    'Blinded by the Light',
    CIBSE Journal, December 1999, pp30-34

    Skelly, M. J. and Wilkinson, M. A. (1999)
    'The Integration of Occupant Control within an Automated Blind Control Strategy and the Application of Learning Systems',
    CIBSE National Conference, 3-5 October 1999, pp327-337.

    The IBC window CD-ROM.

    Performance enhancement of facade fabricators: Completed 2000

    Details
     

    Researcher: Robert Lilly 
     
    Funded: DETR 50%, industry 50%
     
    Total value: £52,000
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
    Status: Completed

    Background/Justification

    Much has been made of the decline of the UK curtain walling industry. However most cladding, particularly in the lower cost range, is still fabricated and erected by UK companies. For these companies to hold the UK market share, and even grow, it is necessary to recognise and meet their needs in terms of people, skills, technical and financial resources. A study of what is necessary, what is achievable and suitable mechanisms to achieve this will enable the most appropriate training and support to be provided.
     

    Objectives

    Identify the competencies available in fabrication/installation companies in relation to company size, contract value and complexity. Identify the competencies that need to be strengthened, supported or obtained elsewhere to enable companies to grow and take on larger or more complex contracts.
    A report will be produced on the necessary training and technical support that could be provided to encourage companies to participate in a programme of industry improvement.
     

    Outputs:

    Internal report to CWCT Council.

    Strength of fixings for natural stone: Completed 2000

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
    Alan Keiller  
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, industry 50%
     
    Value to CWCT: £71,417
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    To review the use of fixings for thin stone panels in the UK.
    To review methods of test for stone anchors and fixings both in the UK and overseas.

    To develop suitable methods of test for anchors and fixings used to support thin stone panels.
     

    Outputs:

    Performance and testing of fixings for thin stone cladding
    Stephen Ledbetter and Alan Keiller, CWCT December 1999, 59pp

    Natural stone database: Completed 1999

    Details
     

    Researcher: Geoff Kennedy
    Alan Keiller
     
    Funded: DETR 50%, industry 50% 
     
    Total value: £57,375  
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Background/Justification

    The use of natural stone as mechanically fixed panels in curtain walling systems has lead to a need for greater testing of stone on any one project. In particular strength testing for flexural strength to allow for designs lying outside the prescriptive dimensions given in BS 8298. The variable nature of many stones means that a large number tests are required even at the preliminary selection stage. The number of tests could be reduced and the selection process accelerated if reliable previous test results were available.
     

    Objectives

    Establish the appropriate format and content for a stone database and to draw together existing test results onto a database. The database should contain the results of durability and strength tests. Project information should be included on the database including images of stone clad buildings, descriptions of the stone and project and the names of suppliers, designers and contractors.
     

    Outputs:

    Project report
    Database for natural stone properties

    Assessment of window heat transfer (U-value) - a guide to standards: Completed 1999

    Details
     

    Researcher: Henk De Bleecker
    Richard Harris 
     
    Funded: DETR PIT programme / industry  
     
    Total value: £43,150   
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Background and justification:

    European standard EN 10077 will provide a method for assessing heat transfer through windows by simplified calculation (Part 1) or numerical calculation (Part 2) using computer software based on finite element analysis or the finite difference method. However, the UK window industry is unfamiliar with the analysis of heat transfer, and is not prepared for the introduction of this standard. By contrast the North American window industry has been using a heat transfer ratings scheme for more than 3 years.
    With the introduction of the European standards the UK window industry may find itself at a significant disadvantage when trying to compete with overseas competitors.
     

    Objectives:

    To provide a simple review of the standards either in use, or in preparation, world-wide, for assessing heat transfer through windows.
    To provide a review of the software available, or in preparation, for assessing window heat transfer.

    To summarise the various window energy rating schemes in use, or in preparation, world-wide.
     

    Outputs:

    Durability of facades: Completed 1999

    Details
     

    Researcher: Alan Keiller 
    Richard Harris
     
    Funded: DETR PIT programme / industry  
     
    Total value: £28,000   
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Background/justification:

    As the principal barrier to weathering of the building the facade is subjected to the widest range of environmental variation. As the principal aesthetic element of the building the facade uses the widest range of dissimilar materials. For these reasons the durability of the facade is the most difficult to define, and the whole life cost of the facade the most difficult to assess.

    Many of the materials used in facades interact chemically, both with each other and with the local environment. Standards for assessing the so-called 'long-term' behaviour of materials usually examine the effect of a single parameter upon one property of the material, and are usually based on simple specimens rather than the complex components that will be formed from the materials, and on readily achievable standardised test regimes rather than real-world conditions. Thus a piece of stainless steel may prove satisfactory in an accelerated corrosion test but will rapidly corrode when installed in a way that prevents regular cleaning of dirt from the surface, or a coating sample may pass a 1000 hour QUV test but give the designer no information about its expected life on a building in Birmingham.

    There is a need to define a framework for assessing the durability of facades, as a function of the local environment, materials used, design methodology and installation practices. This framework can then be used to identify the need for new methods of assessment, and to give designers guidance on interpreting the results of so-called 'long term' behaviour tests. Although many of the factors affecting durability of facades and facade materials are already known they are widely spread throughout specialist literature. The approach taken in this scoping study will be to draw together this information into a single source, and to provide a single framework document for assessing the durability of facades. Reference will be made to relevant existing standards, and recommendations will be made for the preparation of new standards -standards directed at the needs of the designer and client, rather than the needs of the manufacturing industries as has previously been the case.
     

    Objectives:

    • Classify the range of environments achievable at the facade surface (e.g. UV, temperature range, pollutants)
    • Classify materials used in facades (e.g. ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, plastics, ceramics)
    • Correlate known interactions between materials and environment (e.g. UV attack on polymers, alkali attack on ceramics)
    • Summarise existing standards for testing material/material and material/environment interactions
    • Cross-correlate known interactions with existing standards
    • Identify need for new standards
    • Generate framework for assessing durability of complex facades


    Outputs:

    One day workshop, 24 November 1998

    'Durability of facades', pp56, CWCT, 1999, ISBN 1 874003 71 8
    (CWCT members may view this within the Cladding Forum resources)

    Review of standards for fenestration and facades: Completed 1999

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
    Henk De Bleecker 
     
    Funded: DETR 50%, industry 50% 
     
    Total value: £28,500 
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Background and justification:

    The technology of fenestration and facades has evolved over many years but recent changes have been rapid and significant. There are now forms of facade construction for which there are no directly relevant standards or guidance. A widespread practice has developed whereby the standard that most closely matches the requirements of the wall is 'adapted', often mistakenly, to do the job.

    Glazing frames where traditionally face sealed by embedment of glass in a mastic sealant with no need to keep the edge of the glazing dry. Todays glazing systems are sealed by gaskets and weatherstripping with a cavity between the inner and outer seals. The cavity is drained, drained and ventilated or pressure equalised yet current standards do not fully account for this behaviour which significantly affects the durability of both glazing and frame. Whereas some countries have a single standard for all types of window the UK has standards specific to the framing materials of wood, steel, aluminium and PVC-u. Increasingly window frames are made as composites of more than one material to improve durability and termal performance and there are no standards directly relevant to such windows.

    Facades where traditionally either single face sealed skins or heavy constructions that absorbed water. Modern curtain walling may be a face sealed single skin but normally takes the form of rainscreen or glazing frames with a double line of defence. This concept of creating a multi-layer wall with separate sealing against air leakage and water penetration offers advantages in terms of: ease of construction, economy of construction, thermal performance, risk of water penetration and maintenance. Yet there are no UK standards applicable to multi-layer or rainscreen walls and no work within CEN to create such a standard. The work of CEN TC33 relates only to glazing screens.

    BS8200 has been the definitive document on non load-bearing walls for two decades. BS8200 is still refered to by the Building Regulations yet it has not been maintained and the industry now agrees that it is not relevant to todays non-loadbearing walls. This work will identify those standards that are relevant today and those need to replace BS8200 or support its replacement.
     

    Objectives:

    Identify all those UK and EU standards and guides that relate to the performance of fenestration and building facades.

    Categorise all current methods of construction for fenestration and facades and future trends.

    Identify all duplication of standards, conflict of standards, and need for new or improved standards.
     

    Outputs:

    Project report
    Database of standards.

    Preparation of practice notes for the window and cladding industry: Completed 1999

    Details
     

    Researcher: Richard Harris
    Alan Keiller
    Stephen Ledbetter 
     
    Funded: DETR 50%, industry 50%
     
    Total value: £166,820 
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Background/Justification

    As a result of the many technical enquiries received it has received, the CWCT has identified a need for short practice notes to inform both specifiers and manufacturers of cladding, windows and curtain walling. Increasingly, design decisions are being passed to manufacturers, many of whom are small fabricators and assemblers. Some decisions, however, such as selection of finishes and materials, are still being made by specifiers who have less in-depth technical knowledge of products, which are becoming more complex.
     

    Objectives

    Technical notes are being written by the CWCT, reviewed by industry and published as reviewed technical notes. The notes are aimed at construction industry professionals who need to understand products and design and performance specification issues.
    A total of 30 short technical notes will be produced covering the most frequently asked questions about cladding. These include:

    • Weather performance
    • Thermal performance and condensation
    • Glass
    • Performance and testing
    • Design installation and surveying
    • Environmental issues
    The final list of technical papers will focus on particular aspects under the broad headings listed above, either to act as quick reference documents providing best current knowledge/practice or simplified design calculations. 

    Outputs:

    A series of short technical notes has been published and is also available to members in the Cladding Forum as follows;

    TN1 Representing air leakage through windows and glazed cladding systems
    TN2 Introduction to wind loading on cladding
    TN3 Wind loading on wall cladding and windows of low rise buildings
    TN4 Issues relating to wind loading on tall buildings
    TN5 Wind tunnel testing

    TN6 Pressure-equalisation
    TN7 Threat resistant fenestration
    TN8 Selection of windows - a checklist for specifiers
    TN9 Testing pressures
    TN10 Site testing for watertightness

    TN11 Glass types
    TN12 Specification of hermetically sealed glass units
    TN13 Glass breakage
    TN14 Curtain walling types
    TN15 Cladding types

    TN16 Joints in the building envelope
    TN17 Weathertightness and drainage
    TN18 Gaskets
    TN19 Selection and use of sealants
    TN20 Design of sealant joints

    TN21 Tolerance, fit and appearance of cladding
    TN22 Cladding metals 1- ferrous metals
    TN23 Cladding metals 2 – non-ferrous metals
    TN24 Corrosion
    TN25 Selection of applied finishes for metal

    TN26 Introduction to structural design of stick curtain walling
    TN27 Structural design of stick curtain walling – sample calculations
    TN28 Performance requirements for curtain wall brackets
    TN29 Design of curtain wall brackets
    TN30 Cladding of buildings subject to earthquakes

    The effect of edge details on the heat transfer through insulated panels: Completed 1998

    Details
     

    Researcher: Richard Harris
     
    Funded: DETR 50%, industry 50%
     
    Total value: £51,550 
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Background/Justification

    Stick system curtain walls use insulated panels (typically 40% of the facade area) to reduce heat loss. The edge of the panel is usually reduced to the same thickness as the edge of a glazing unit, to simplify the framing design. However, thin edges coupled with the common use of aluminium sheets to form the skins of the insulated panel, can form a significant thermal bridge, and the actual panel U-value can exceed the design value by a factor of 5, yet there is currently no requirement to assess the true heat loss through these panels.
     

    Objectives

    To propose standard edge details for insulated panels, which offer acceptably low levels of thermal bridging; to present simple guidance for the design of insulated panels, with respect to their edge details, to ensure that poor edge detailing does not compromise the thermal performance of curtain walling installations and demonstrate reliable ways to assess the true heat loss through insulated panels in stick system curtain walling.
    Insulated panels are generally fabricated by companies with a low technical understanding of the performance requirements, and the guidance will be targeted at these companies.
     

    Outputs:

    'The effect of edge details on heat transfer through insulated panels'
    Richard Harris, CWCT 1998
    See the publications page

    Failure mode and effects analysis in the cladding industry: Completed 1998

    Details
     

    Researcher: Jeremy Layzell 
     
    Funded: EPSRC 50%, industry 50%
     
    Total value: £87,000
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
    Partners: Ove Arup
    BAA
    Bovis
    Crittall
    Pilkington
    Schuco
    Sheppard Robson
    Taywood 
     
    Status: Completed

    Justification:

    The design, manufacture, fabrication and installation of cladding involves the use of a large number of materials and components. However, the interactions between these materials and components are difficult to assess without a suitable framework within which design decisions may be properly made and communicated. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) identifies the decisions that need to be made to properly select components and highlights the risks and consequences of incorrect decisions.
     

    Objectives:

    Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) was developed in the aerospace and defence industries and later adopted by the automotive industry. The technique assesses the effects of particular failure modes of components on the functioning and performance of the system. FMEA guides and justifies expense on those components that have the greatest likelihood and potential to cause costly technical failure or safety problems.

    The project examines the present design and communication framework and FMEA to redefine the framework so that decisions can be made at the appropriate stage of the cladding process. The research concludes that an elementary form of FMEA is now feasible: the failure and statistical data enable priorities for quality planning by corrective action to be set to reduce the risk of failure.
     

    Outputs:

    CWCT (1997) Failure Mode and Effects Analysis in the cladding industry - Final Report, Centre for Window and Cladding Technology, University of Bath.

    Failure Mode and Effects Analysis in the cladding industry, Jeremy Layzell, International Conference on Building Envelope Systems and Technology, 1997.

    Failure Mode and Effects Analysis in the cladding industry, Jeremy Layzell, Research Focus, No. 25, April 1996.

    Cladding failures under test, Jeremy Layzell, Research Focus, No. 29, May 1997.

    Feasibility of Failure Mode and Effects Analysis in the cladding industry - procurement - a key to innovation, Jeremy Layzell & Stephen Ledbetter, CIB Proceedings, 1997.

    Validation of thermal performance design tools: Completed 1998

    Details
     

    Researcher: Richard Harris 
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, industry 50%
     
    Value to CWCT: £12,600
     
    Lead partner: National Physical Laboratory (NPL)
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    To validate methods of test and analysis for thermal transmission through glazing frames.
     

    Outputs:

    Reports to the NPL.
    Contributions to the NPL report.

    Specification of slope glazing: Completed 1998

    Details
     

    Researcher: Richard Harris 
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, industry 50%
     
    Total value: £27,000
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    To write a performance specification for slope glazing as a companion document to the CWCT Standard for curtain walling.
     

    Outputs:

    Standard for slope glazing systems.
    See the publications pages.

    Towards a zero-defects construction culture: Completed 1997

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter 
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, industry 50%
     
    Value to CWCT: £20,000
     
    Lead partner: Taywood Engineering Limited
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    The Taywood zero defect project aims to change the construction process so that fewer defects occur as a result of inadequate or inappropriate processes. This includes all stages from client brief of the architect through to final handover.

    Within the Taywood project CWCT is carrying out a supply chain analysis of the cladding industry in order to identify ways of improving the process of procuring cladding.
     

    Outputs:

    Presentations at three industry workshops.

    Eaton, D., Elliot, R., Evans, D., James-Moore, M., Ledbetter, S., Masat, J. and Thompson, P. (1996). Towards a zero defect culture within the construction industry. In IGLC96, International conference on on Lean Construction, Birmingham, August 1996.

    Sealed joints in the external envelope of buildings: Completed 1997

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter 
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, industry 50%
     
    Value to CWCT: £40,000
     
    Lead partner: CIRIA
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    To write a guide to the sealing of the building envelope using wet applied sealants or sealant tapes.
    The final report comprises:

    Section 1 - The function, requirements and building components of sealed joints.
    Section 2 - Materials used to seal joints.
    Section 3 - Principles of design of joints with sealants.
    Section 4 - Construction details.
    Section 5 - Installation.


    Outputs:

    Ledbetter, S. R., Hurley, S. and Sheehan, A. (1998).
    Sealant joints in the external envelope of buildings: a guide on design, specification and construction.
    CIRIA R178, p. 195, CIRIA ISBN 0 86017 480 8

    Mapping and quantifying the curtain wall industry: Completed 1996

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter 
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, industry 50%
     
    Total value: £27,100
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed
    Objectives:
    To map the supply chain for curtain walling and glazing screens in the UK.
    To produce a database of specialist sub-contractors operating in the UK.
     
    Outputs:
    Report to Council of CWCT.
    Fabric industry sector innovation and research strategy: Completed 1996

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter 
     
    Funded: DoE 100%
     
    Total value: £21,000
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    To report on the current state of the cladding supply industry and the construction industries involvement with cladding.

    To identify an innovation, research and development strategy for the cladding sector of the construction industry.
     

    Outputs:

    Fabric 2006
    Report to the Department of the Environment

    Use of advanced glazings: Completed 1995

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
    Richard Harris
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, Industry 50%
     
    Total value: £81,000
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    To identify the potential barriers to the uptake of advanced glazings including their technical risks and durability.
    To identify necessary supporting technology for advanced glazing systems, including framing technology, installation and maintenance.

    To evaluate and propose feasible measures to overcome the potential barriers identified

    The final report comprises: a review of performance issues, including the relevant physics; a review of performance testing; a 'state of the art' review of glazing types, from basic single glasses to the latest advanced glazings; issues affecting uptake of advanced glazings; a review of competing technologies; UK and world-wide issues affecting the uptake of advanced glazings.
     

    Outputs:

    Use of advanced glazings, R M Harris & S R Ledbetter, CWCT, January 1997, 120pp
    See the publications pages.

    Guide to the design of thermal improved glazing frames: Completed 1995

    Details
     

    Researcher: Richard Harris
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, Industry 50%
     
    Total value: £44,500
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    To identify factors governing heat transfer through window and curtain walling frames, to illustrate the relative thermal performance of different frame designs, to examine the effects of 'warm edge technology' glazing spacers, to produce clear design guidance, to aid the designer of thermally improved glazing frames.

    The final report comprises: introduction to heat transfer/condensation; simulations of heat transfer through aluminium, timber, PVC-U and steel window frames; simulations of heat transfer through composite window frames (aluminium and steel with timber and PVC-U); simulations of heat transfer through window frames with warm edge glazing spacers; simulations of heat transfer through curtain walling frames, all with ordinary and low-e double glazing.
     

    Outputs:

    Guide to the design of thermally improved glazing frames, Richard Harris, CWCT, November 1995, ISBN 1 874003 16 5, 200pp: £75 Members; £100 non-Members.
    See the publications pages.

    The thermal performance of glazing frames, 21AD, Issue 2, Oxford Brookes University, February 1995, pp12-14

    Framing U-values, Building Products, May 1996, pp39 (magazine article)

    Performance of gaskets in windows and cladding systems: Completed 1994

    Details
     

    Researcher: Richard Harris
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, Industry 50%
     
    Total value: £60,266
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    To make available to window, curtain wall and cladding designers a clear guide to the properties and performance of the most common gaskets to present design guidance on the performance of gaskets.

    The final report comprises: a study of the physics of air and water movement through joints; a review of related technology world-wide; a review of design guidance world-wide; measurement of gasket force- compression characteristics; simulation (finite element analysis) of gasket force-compression characteristics; a review of design and installation practices; recommendations for improving performance of gaskets at all levels from designer to installer.

    A summary document is currently in preparation for issue as a supplement to the Standard for Curtain Walling. This document is presently being reviewed by the steering group, to be published in 1997.
     

    Outputs:

    The performance of gaskets in window and cladding systems, a 'state of the art' review, Richard Harris, CWCT, April 1996, ISBN 1 874003 07 6, 110pp
    (review of industry, relevant technology and performance issues: £60 members: £80 non- members)
    See the publications pages.
    .
    Harris, R. M. and Ledbetter, S. R. (1997). Joint sealing and air infiltration through cladding in tall buildings. In Multipurpose High-rise Towers and Tall Buildings, pp. 131-142, E&FN Spon, ISBN 0 419 23300 8

    Thermal performance for curtain walls: Completed 1994

    Details
     

    Researcher: Richard Harris
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, Industry 50%
     
    Total value: £92,250
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    The initial objective of this project was to study ways of assessing the U-value of curtain walling systems. However, due to the failure to reconcile measured, simulated and calculated performance values (insufficient measurement data was available to identify the source of the discrepancies) it was not possible to draw firm conclusions. Instead, general guidance has been produced, which will be issued as supplement to the Standard for curtain walling and a significant contribution has been made to the development of the CAB document Guide for assessment of the thermal performance of aluminium curtain wall framing (1996).

    Further work is now underway to study other heat transfer problems in curtain walling systems.
     

    Outputs:

    'Thermal performance and condensation risk' (4 documents)
    'Specifying and assessing for heat transfer (the U-value)
    'Specifying and assessing for condensation risk'
    'Procedures for assessing glazing frame U-values'
    'Assessing heat transfer and condensation risk for a curtain wall'
    See the publications page

    Research strategy for window and cladding technology: Completed 1993

    Details
     

    Researcher: Alan Smith
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, Industry 50%
     
    Total value: £15,800
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    To identify the research needs of industry by questionnaire and interview.

    The final report provides a statistical analysis of the replies and prioritises the research needs.
     

    Outputs:

    Facade Engineering - a research survey, CWCT, July 1994, ISBN 1 874003 114

    Resistance of windows to forced entry: Completed 1993

    Details
     

    Researcher: Graham Thomas
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, Industry 50%
     
    Total value: £66,050
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    To develop a method of test for windows with enhanced resistance to attack from intruders.

    To develop a mechanical test to replicate the human intervention test used in Germany.
     

    Outputs:

    Windows with enhanced resistance to intrusion, CWCT, June 1994, ISBN 1 874003 06 8,
    51pp (Out of print)

    CWCT has made a major contribution to the writing of British Standard PAS 011 which contains the method of test developed under this research project.

    Quality of installation for windows and cladding: Completed 1993

    Details
     

    Researcher: Graham Thomas
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, Industry 50%
     
    Total value: £83,600
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    To study the effects that quality of installation has on companies involved in the window and curtain walling industry to study the level of training related to installation practices.

    The final report comprises: a review of the people and organisation of the process; a study of facade installation; a study of window installation; results of weathertightness tests on installed windows; comments on observed window installations; calls for training, registration and certification of installers.
     

    Outputs:

    Quality of installation for windows and cladding, CWCT, 1993, 90pp: out of print.

    CWCT Scheme for certification of curtain walling installers

    A comparative study of the facade industry in the UK, Europe, Japan and the USA: Completed 1992

    Details
     

    Researcher: Stephen Ledbetter
    Robin Gray
     
    Funded: DoE 50%, Industry 50%
     
    Total value: £120,000
     
    Lead partner: CWCT
     
    Status: Completed

    Objectives:

    This research compares the curtain walling industries in the U.K., Europe, Japan and the USA.  It describes the nature and structure of the industry in each country, differences in specification and procurement procedures and the roles of the manufacturer, consultant, architect and client.

    It considers skill levels, education and training, recruitment and the shortage of technical staff.  Finally it compares the different technical standards applied in each country.
     

    Outputs:

    Three volume report.
    See the publications pages